Biculturalism Unpacked: Components, Measurement, Individual Differences, and Outcomes

Cultural contact due to migration, globalization, travel, and the resulting cultural diversity, has led to growing numbers of bicultural individuals, which demands further research on this group. In this article, we introduce the concept of biculturalism and provide the foundation necessary for understanding literature on this topic, beginning research in this area, and recognizing biculturalism in everyday life. In unpacking the construct of biculturalism, we first define it along with its components and related constructs (e.g. acculturation strategies). Second, we compare and discuss various ways of measuring biculturalism (e.g. unidimensional versus bidimensional models). Third, we organize and summarize the limited literature on individual differences in bicultural identity, focusing on the construct of Bicultural Identity Integration (Benet-Martínez & Haritatos, 2005). Lastly, we review the possible outcomes resulting from biculturalism. I think of myself not as a unified cultural being but as a communion of different cultural beings. Due to the fact that I have spent time in different cultural environments, I have developed several cultural identities that diverge and converge according to the need of the moment. (Sparrow, 2000, 190) Most agree that our society is increasingly diverse and multicultural, but who is bicultural? Would a European American who eats Mexican food, speaks Spanish, and is married to a Mexican American be considered bicultural? What about an African American individual born and raised in the USA? Is he or she bicultural? In this article, we argue that there is more than one definition of biculturalism by reviewing the various definitions of biculturalism and presenting biculturalism within the context of acculturation. Because there is also more than one way to operationalize biculturalism, we compare and contrast the various methods of measuring it. Furthermore, we argue that there is more than one way to be bicultural and subsequently discuss variations among bicultural individuals, particularly the construct of Bicultural Identity Integration (BII). Finally, we argue for the potential benefits of biculturalism. 102 Biculturalism Unpacked © 2007 The Authors Social and Personality Psychology Compass 1/1 (2007): 101–114, 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00029.x Journal Compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Biculturalism Defined There are many definitions of biculturalism, ranging from general (i.e. based on demographic characteristics) to psychologically specific conceptualizations (e.g. cultural identifications or orientations). Loosely defined, bicultural individuals may be immigrants, refugees, sojourners (e.g. international students, expatriates), indigenous people, ethnic minorities, those in interethnic relationships, and mixed-ethnic individuals (Berry, 2003; Padilla, 1994). Generally speaking, a large percentage of Americans may be considered bicultural (US Census Bureau, 2005). For example, 12% of the US population is foreign born, 33% nonwhite, and 19% speak a language other than English at home. Aside from the foreign-born population, there is a large number of US-born ethnic and cultural minorities (e.g. children and grandchildren of immigrants) for whom identification and involvement with their ethnic cultures, in addition to mainstream US culture, is the norm (Phinney, 1996). In addition, other Americans, such as those who have lived abroad, may also be bicultural. Psychologically, there is no commonly agreed definition of biculturalism. Loosely speaking, bicultural individuals are those whose self-label (e.g. ‘I am bicultural’) or group self-categorization (e.g. ‘I am American’ and ‘I am Chinese’; ‘I am Chinese American’) reflects their cultural dualism. More strictly defined, bicultural individuals are those who have been exposed to and have internalized two cultures (Benet-Martínez, Leu, Lee, & Morris, 2002). Biculturalism also entails the synthesis of cultural norms from two groups into one behavioral repertoire (Rotheram-Borus, 1993), or the ability to switch between cultural schemas, norms, and behaviors in response to cultural cues (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martínez, 2000). In this article, we use the strict psychological definition of biculturalism. Moreover, our discussion of biculturalism focuses on ethnic cultures, although the term ‘biculturalism’ can be used to refer to any pair of two cultures (e.g. professional cultures, geographic cultures, generational cultures). Biculturalism and Acculturation Biculturalism and acculturation are tightly intertwined, with biculturalism being one of four ways to acculturate; therefore, we review the development of acculturation theory and the definition of biculturalism from an acculturation standpoint before delving further into our discussion of biculturalism. Traditional views of acculturation (the process of learning or adapting to a new culture) asserted that to acculturate means to assimilate – rejecting one’s ethnic culture and adopting the dominant culture. In other words, acculturation originally was conceptualized as a unidimensional, one-directional, and irreversible process of moving toward the new mainstream culture and away from the original ethnic culture (Trimble, 2003). However, a wealth of acculturation studies conducted in the last